Difference between viral and bacterial infection

Hello everyone! ^__^

How would you differentiate a viral infection from bacterial infection? @_@

Viral infections are widespread and involve a number of mucosae simultaneously or in quick succession

Bacterial infections are localized and cause site specific symptoms

A virus may produce clear or cloudy mucous

Discharge is watery

A bacterial illness typically causes colored phlegm (green, yellow, bloody or brown-tinged)

Discharge is thick

Viral infections usually clear up pretty quickly

They last for 2 - 10 days

Bacterial infections have a longer duration of illness

They last for more than 10 day

Viral infection may or may not cause a fever

A bacterial infection will cause fever

 

That's all!

All time pageview: It's over 9,000!!!

Guess we are viral too :P

(Viral - An image, video, advertisement, etc. that is circulated rapidly on the Internet)

-IkaN

Neisseria mnemonic

Neisseria are usually arranged in pairs, non motile, facultative anaerobes that are gram negative.
They are catalase and oxidase positive.

Hello everyone!
I'll be sharing some random mnemonics I made while studying Neisseria today :D

The first one is on morphology
N. meningitidis - Adjacent sides are flattened.
N. gonorrhoeae - Adjacent sides concave and they are kidney shaped.
Draw em to remember em!

How do you remember the constituents of Mueller Hinton agar?
SCHooL! Starch Casein HydroLysate agar ^_^

Antibiotics used in Thayer Martin agar?
Vancomycin, Colistin, Nystatin.
I had mugged this.. Lemme know if you know of any mnemonics for this one :)

Gonococci acidify Glucose.
Meningococci acidify Maltose (and glucose).

Question: Which media are preferred for the acute versus chronic gonorrhea?
In acute gonorrhea, cultures are easily obtained on Chocolate agar or Meuller Hinton agar!
In chronic cases, it is better to use a selective medium such as Thayer Martin.

That's all!
Have an awesome week =)

Wanna reblog? Here's the link to the tumblr post!

-IkaN

The Rh factor

The Rh Antigen

 The Rh blood group system is the second most important blood group system out of the 30 human blood group system after the ABO blood groups.

So here are some interesting facts I picked up during my reading :

1.    It is called the Rh factor because: 

      Karl Landsteiner and Alexender Wiener used the Rbc's of the Rhesus macaque monkey to be injected into a rabbit. The serum from the rabbit agglutinated 85% of different human Rbc's (because of the formation of anti-D agglutinin in the rabbit). This led to the discovery of the Rh factor.

2.  In the ABO blood group system..the antibodies A and B are of the IgM type. But in the Rh blood group system..the anti-D agglutinin is of the IgG type. So the anti-D agglutinins..

                           1 .can cross the placenta, 

                           2. it is an incomplete antibody (detected in the serum using coombs test), 

                           3. it appears in the plasma 2 to 3 months after exposure to the D antigen.

3    The basic importance of this blood group is when an Rh negative mother concieves an Rh positive baby.

     

      Anti-D agglutinin are formed in the mother's blood due to prior sensitization..either by Rh positive blood transfusion or due to mixing of blood during the birth of a previous Rh positive baby. 

     These antibodies cross the placenta and destroy the baby's red blood cells, a disease called erythroblastosis fetalis..symptoms are severe anaemia, jaundice, kernicterus, hepato and splenomegaly and eventual death. 

      Also to meet the excess Rbc's demands..the bone marrow produces excess of Rbc's..these are immature blast forms which are nucleated. Hence, the name erythroblastosis fetalis. 

      The cure for this is to replace the Rh positive blood of the baby with Rh negative blood during the first few weeks of life( until the anti-D agglutinins from the mothers curculation are destroyed).
     
      To prevent this disease..administer the mother with anti-D antibody during preganancy or after birth of the baby, which binds to the anti-D agglutinins.

• The man with the golden arm. James Harrison was born in 1936. At the age of 13, he underwent a major chest surgery to extract a lung with metastasised pneumonia, and required 13 litres of blood. After surgery, he was in the hospital for three months. Realising the blood had saved his life, he made a pledge to start donating blood as soon as he turned eighteen.
•   Since his first donation in 1954, he has donated more than 1000 times. After the first few donations, it was discovered that his blood contained an antibody that prevents infants who receive his blood from dying of erythroblastosis fetalis. This blood is given to one in ten women whose blood is not compatible with that of their children.The uniqueness of his blood also created the Anti-D antibody vaccine. When he originally began donating blood, his life was insured for one million dollars. He reached his 1000th donation in May 2011. His blood has helped to save over 2.4 million babies with hundreds of thousands of women being treated with his antibodies.

                                           posted by- M

Vector borne diseases mnemonic

To remember the diseases caused by the vector mite, the mnemonic is "Mrs"
M - Mite
R - Rickettsial pox
S - Scrub typhus

To remember the diseases caused by the vector flea, the mnemonic is "Feb"
F -Flea
E - Endemic typhus
B - Bubonic plague

(This one is super lame I admit but..)
To remember the diseases caused by the vector louse, the mnemonic is..
House MD characters ERic Foreman and Taub =P

For the vector Tick; random images of ticks, lime, question marks, mountains, India, forests flow through my mind and I get my answer..
(Tick - Lyme disease, Q fever, Rocky Mountain Spotted fever, Indian tick typhus, Kyasanur forest disease)

That should cover most of the tough part for now..
Post will be updated soon.

Happy new year everyone! ^__^
2013 is gonna be awesome.

-IkaN

Bile stained and non bile stained eggs mnemonic

The mnemonic for non bile stained eggs is
"A HEN" laid non bile stained eggs
Ankylostoma duodenale
Hymenolepsis nana
Enterobius vermicularis
Necator Americans

Non bile stained eggs mnemonic

Benzodiazepenes as preanaesthetic medication

Why are benzodiazepenes used as preanaesthetic medications?
Because they produce tranquility, smoothen induction and produce amnesia (there is a loss of recall of perioperative events)

They also counteract CNS toxicity of local anaesthetics
What does that mean? @_@
It simply means that they help control seizure activity ^_^

When CNS toxicity occurs, it is rapid in onset, administration of intravenous anticonvulsant drugs is not expeditious enough to terminate the condition
That is why, barbiturates and benzodiazepines are administered as a prophylactic measure to prevent seizures in a variety of minor surgical and endoscopic procedures :)

That's all!

-IkaN

Acidification of urine

I was requested to do a blog post on acidification of urine too.. So here it goes!

How do you acidify urine?
You can acidify urine by administrating NH4Cl, Vitamin C or cranberry juice.
Another drug used is lysine dihydrochloride.
Foods can acidify the urine too. (Foods like plums, prunes, meats, cheeses, eggs, fish, and grains!)

Uses of acidification of urine -

• To promote antibacterial action of methenamine in urine

Below pH 5.5, methenamine releases formaldehyde, which is antibacterial.
Acidifying agents are given with methenamine to lower urinary pH.
(That is why, microorganisms such as proteus that make a strongly alkaline urine through release of ammonia from urea are usually resistant to methenamine :O )

• Prevention of calcium phosphate renal stones
An alkaline pH favors the crystallization of calcium- and phosphate-containing stones hence acidification of urine will prevent the formation of these stones.

 Remember the formation of which stones are promoted due to acidification of urine?
 If you're thinking uric acid or cystine stones, you're absolutely right, give yourself a pat on the back! :D

Also note that - 

Acidification of urine effects excretion of a number of weak bases and tertiary amines such as cocaine, amphetamines, quinine, quinidine, strychinine, chloroquine and ephedrine.
Forced acid diuresis is rarely done in clinical practice >_>

Did you know?
Contrary to popular belief, vinegar (acetic acid) is not given orally for acidification of urine.
Vinegar is used for bladder irrigation.

That's all!
Merry Christmas ^___^
-IkaN

Related post: Alkalinization of urine

Death

Death is defined as irreversible cessation of life.
It is classified as somatic and molecular.
When the brain, lung and heart stop completely, it is called somatic death.
Molecular death occurs about 3–4 hours after somatic death when the individual cells and tissues start dying and the decomposition signs start showing.
 
The cause of death is defined as disease or injury which results in death.

The manner of death explains how the cause of death came into being.
The manner of death may be natural or unnatural.
When a person dies because of some disease, the manner of death is natural.
If he dies because of some injury, the manner of death is unnatural, which may be homicidal, suicidal, or accidental.

The mode of death is the physiological process which causes death like asphyxia, coma, and syncope.

That's all!


-IkaN

Author's diary:

This blog makes me want to write my thoughts about death..
Personally, I believe we all go to a better place after death :)

There is this piece of music on death that I particularly like
The Nature Of All Tragedies by Double Z & Lights Off
It has a chilled beat to it and the vocal samples are so strong and.. Cold.
You should check it out :)

"You'll die, some day, some time. You will die. You'll absolutely die.
Even if you avoid this death, another will find you.
And I guarantee, that it won't be nearly as poetic or meaningful as what she's written.
I'm sorry but it's... It's the nature of all tragedies, Harold.
The hero dies and the story goes on forever."

Coronary steal

Hey everyone!

What is coronary steal phenomenon?
Coronary steal is the term given to blood being stolen from one region of the coronary tree by another
It is also called coronary steal syndrome.

Stole my heart? :P

When does this happen?
When a powerful coronary dilator like dipyrimadole or hydralazine is given.
These drugs are potent arteriolar dilators and dilate resistance vessels too.
Other drug associated with this phenomenon is isoflurane.

Why does this happen?
Let's say you have two branches of  coronary artery - One normal and one significantly obstructed.
The normal one is capable of dilating and constricting in response to changes in oxygen demand.
The obstructed branch has significant arteriolar dilation even when cardiac oxygen demand is low, because of the accumulation of metabolites in the ischemic tissue.
Also, when you have blockages in one or more of your coronary arteries, there is impedance to blood flow.

If you add a vasodilator, the healthy normal vessels are forced to dilate.
The diseased/blocked arteries won't dilate much.
Also, blood flows through the path of least resistance.

So blood flow through the relatively healthy arteries increases.. This "steals" blood away from the diseased arteries, and you actually get less flow to the ischemic tissue.

I read a multiple choice question online, answer in the comments below

Which following drug effects responsible for coronary steal phenomenon?
Epicardial vessel dilatation
Capacitance vessel dilatation
Coronary microvessel dilatation
Arterial dilatation
Mixed arterial & venous dilatation

-IkaN

Diuretics in Congestive Heart Failure

Hello everyone!
I read this really cool thing I would love to share it with you guys :D

Did you know?
Before diuretics were available, rotating tourniquets were use to diminish venous return by ligating the lower extremities.
Less venous return, decreased preload. This obviously lead to pooling of blood in legs.
This procedure was effective because it diminished the intravascular volume that would otherwise accumulate in the lungs.

Amazing, ain't it?

We have diuretics now! ^__^
Diuretics decrease preload and increase ventricular efficiency by reducing circulating volume, remove peripheral edema and pulmonary congestion =D

That's all!

-IkaN

(Another blog post from me.. Yep, I survived 21st December, 2012)

Alkalinization of urine

I am sharing some of the applications since it is not put up together on the internet.. So here it goes!

How do you alkalinize urine?
The urine can be alkalinized (the pH elevated) by administering sodium bicarbonate or potassium citrate. Carbonic anhydrase inhibitiors like acetazolamide can also be used.

Cool fact:
Citrate containing fruits like lemons and limes alkalize urine.
Citric acid is not to be confused with ascorbic acid (vitamin C).
Ascorbic acid is used for acidification of urine.
Citric acid is used for alkalinization of urine.

Uses of alkalinization of urine:
• Forced alkaline diuresis has been used to increase the excretion of acidic drugs like salicylic acid and phenobarbitone (a weak acid barbiturate)
Simply because weak acids ionize at alkaline pH and will not be re-absorbed.

• To decrease risk of nephrotoxicity in methotrexate therapy.

• In dimercaprol therapy
The dimercaprol-metal complex dissociates faster in acidic urine.
The released metal can damage the kidney.
That is why, urine is alkalinized :)

• In rhabdomyolysis
Alkalinization of the urine has been postulated to minimize the breakdown of myoglobin into its nephrotoxic metabolites & to reduce crystallization of uric acid, thereby decreasing damage to tubule cells.

Uric acid, cystine, and some other weak acids are relatively insoluble in, and easily reabsorbed
from, acidic urine. Thus, it can be used to prevent crystallization of excess urate in urinary tract during probenecid treatment in chronic gout or hyperuricaemia occurring as a consequence of rapid destruction of tumor and degradation of large amounts of purines during anticancer therapy & cystinuria.

Also note that -
Calcium salts are relatively insoluble at alkaline pH, which means that the potential for renal stone formation from these salts is enhanced.
Alkalinization of the urine will decrease urinary excretion of NH4+ and may contribute to the development of hyperammonemia and hepatic encephalopathy in patients with cirrhosis.

Did you know?
Some antacids (eg, magnesium hydroxide with aluminum hydroxide) alkalize the urine somewhat, thus altering excretion of drugs sensitive to urinary pH.

That's all I have to say :)
It's amazing how pH influences drug ^__^
But there is more to it, we don't know everything about the mechanisms.
Click here to know why I say so --> http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15181662

Lemme know if you know of some other applications!

-IkaN
(It's 20/12/2012) :D

Related post: Acidification of urine

Cathartics

Stimulant/irritant purgatives/cathartics

How do they act?
They basically act on intestinal mucosa or nerve plexuses to

• Decrease water absorption from the bowel lumen
• Increase secretions of fluid into the bowel
• Stimulate bowel motility 

They are thought to inhibit Na+ K+ ATPase in the basolateral membrane
Secretion is enhanced by activation of cAMP in the crypt cells
& increased prostaglandin synthesis :)

They act on the colon rather than the ileum and produce evacuation within 8-10 hours after administration
This makes them particularly suitable for administration at night ^__^

Examples: Anthraquinone Derivatives, Diphenylmethane Derivatives, Castor Oil, Aloe

When are they used?
They are used to treat constipation in bed ridden patients
Also used to treat constipation due to chronic morphine administration

When are they contraindicated?
Spastic constipation (irritable bowel)
Subacute or chronic intestinal obstruction
Pregnancy (They can reflexly contract the gravid uterus)

Long term use is discouraged due to adverse effects
Larger doses may lead to excessive purgation and electrolyte imbalance (Hypokalemia may occur)
Cramps, skin rashes and fixed drug eruptions are other side effects
Colonic atony, melanosis - On prolonged use
Amount secreted in milk is sufficient to cause purgation in suckling infant

Did you know?
With use of cascara sagrada or senna a pink-red, red-violet, redbrown, yellow-brown, or black discoloration of urine may occur - But that's nothing to worry about :)

-IkaN

Stool Softeners

Stool softeners

How do they act?
They soften the stool material by permitting water and lipids to penetrate

Emollient laxatives lubricate the intestinal walls and soften the stool, thereby enhancing passage of fecal material
Some stool softeners like liquid paraffin are also known to lubricate the hard scybali by coating them

"Emollients, stool softeners, surface-acting drugs, lubricants, stool surfactant agents" are the many names used to describe these drugs @_@
According to me, there is no need to distinguish between the different terms used as most books consider them to be the same
In one of the books I read, it said that the difference between emollient laxatives and fecal softeners is that the emollient laxatives do not promote the retention of water in the stool

We'll just call them "Stool softeners" ^__^

They take 1-2 days to act
Mineral oil is preferably given on an empty stomach in the evening or bed time

Examples: Mineral oil, docusate (oral or enema), glycerin suppository, liquid paraffin

When are they used?
They are used when straining at stools is to be avoided such as hernia, cardiovascular diseases, eye surgery and perianal afflicitions (piles, fissures, anal surgery)
It is also used to prevent and treat fecal impaction in young children and debilitated adults
(May be given prior to administration of other laxatives in treating fecal impaction)

Adverse effects

Docusates by itself are relatively non toxic but when taken with other laxatives increase their absorption and may lead to liver toxicity
It disrupts the mucosal barrier and increases the absorption of many non absorbable drugs, liquid paraffin should not be combined with it

Mineral oil may impair gastrointestinal absorption of fat soluble vitamins like vitamin A, D, E and K (Avoid long term use)
Larger doses may leak out the anal sphincter and cause physical and social discomfort
Paraffin taken orally over long periods, especially at night, may be aspirated and cause chronic lipoid pneumonia
It may be carried from the intestine to the lymph nodes to produce foreign body granulomas in the intestinal mucosa, mesenteric lymph nodes, liver and spleen

Did you know?
An unusual case of lipid pneumonia resulted from attempts by a patient, an amateur singer, to lubricate his larynx with liquid paraffin

That's all for today :)
-IkaN