Difference between Duodenal and Gastric Ulcer

Hello everyone, let’s talk about the ever confusing difference between Duodenal and Gastric Ulcer. Both the ulcers are a type of Peptic Ulcer which occurs due the action of acid resulting in the damage of alimentary mucosa. The main cause for both of them could be infection with H. pylori or intake of NSAIDs.

Mnemonico diagnostico : Klinefelter's syndrome

Hey Awesomites

Criteria for diagnosis of Klinefelter's syndrome in males mnemonic : KLINEFELTER

K - (K) Cryptorchidism
L - Leydig cells hypertrophy
I - Increased gonadotrophins
N - Negative/ Positive chromatism (aberrations)
E - Elongated legs
F - Failure of secondary sexual characters
E - Eunuchoidism
L - Late pubic hair
T - Testicular failure
E - Erectile dysfunction / Elbow deformities
R - Retardation (mental)


Thats all
- Jaskunwar Singh

Non Contraceptive uses of the Condom

Hi everyone. So we know what we use a condom for generally :p
But there are a few non Contraceptive uses for this magical device that prevents babies :').

So here goes -

1. Prevention of STD's.
2. Can be used in Balloon Tamponade to control PPH.
3. Used to cover the USG probe inserted into the female tract.
4. Can be used as a mould for the vagina during Vulvoplasty.
5. Women with Anti Sperm antibodies during the initial phase. (Controversial).

So that's about it.
We know no 5 more reasons to use condoms !
Go get em ; )
Happy studying.
Stay awesome.

~ A.P.Burkholderia

How to remember Hepatitis B is associated with membranous glomerulonephritis

Writing this post because I confused it with focal segmental glomerulonephritis yesterday.

Hepatitis B is associated with membranous glomerulonephritis.

Mnemonic: Happy memory - Heppy membory - Hepatitis B Membranous nephropathy :D

That's all!
-IkaN

Bromocriptine : Utility Review

Hi everyone ! Here's a brief review on the drug Bromocriptine which happens to be one of my favorite drugs. So here goes.

- Bromocriptine is a Dopaminergic agonist , specifically acting on the D2 Receptors.

- It is a very widely used drug , with various and multi systemic uses.

Uses :

1. Parkinson's disease.
- Bromocriptine and other D2 agonists like Rotigotine , Ropinirole and Pramipexole can be used to treat Parkinsonism.
- They act by providing a sort of  replacement for the depleted dopamine in the circuits of the basal ganglia.
- They are quite effective , especially in case of L Dopa resistance , or deterioration of symptoms when on L dopa.

2. Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome.
- NMS is perhaps caused by D2 blockade due to drugs like Haloperidol and Fluphenazine.
- Thus it makes sense if you give this D2 agonist to treat this disorder.

3. Hyperprolactinemia.
- Dopamine acts as a Prolactin Inhibitory Factor (PIF) at the Hypthalamo-Pituitary level.
- In cases of Hyperprolactinemia where there is gynecomastia and galactorrhea,  giving D2 agonists counteracts the elevated prolactin levels.
- Thus it's useful in Anti psychotic/ Metoclopramide induced Hyperprolactinemia.
- Can be used in Ovulation induction due to elevated prolactin by a Pituitary adenoma.

4. Diabetes Mellitus.
- Bromocriptine modulates the Dopaminergic discharge at the Hypothalamus level.
- This modulates the circadian rhythm and resets the abnormal metabolic drive of the Hypothalamus and reduces the insulin resistance.
- The specific Quick Release formulation is used for this indication.
- It may be used in conjunction with Insulin and does not cause hypoglycemia.
- It cannot however be used for DKA

5. Acromegaly.
- Inhibits the excess Growth Hormone secretion by acting at the Hypothalamus level.

Hope this helped !
Happy studying and stay awesome!
~ A.P.Burkholderia

Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome : A Crisp Overview

Hi everyone ! So I recently saw a patient who possibly had Neuroleptic malignant syndrome. So I though I would do a post on it !

1. The Syndrome -

NMS is an idiosyncratic reaction to Anti psychotic drugs. It causes a host of symptoms like Rigidity , Hyperpyrexia and altered consciousness.

2. The Etiology -

- All Antipsychotic drugs can cause NMS. But most commonly implicated are Haloperidol, Fluphenazine and Chlorpromazine.
- Especially at risk are those taking Depot preparations.
- Even lithium in high doses can precipitate this.
- Atypical Antipsychotic drugs have a lower propensity to cause this.

3. The Pathophysiology -
- Although largely speculative , the cause is said to be the dopaminergic blockade by the anti psychotic drugs.
- Blockade of D2 in Hypothalamus is responsible for the Behavioral and Temperature changes.
- Blockade of D2 in the basal ganglia ( nigro striatal pathway) causes the Rigidity.
- increased muscular activity can cause muscle break down.

4. The Clinical Features - 

- generally within 4-10 days after starting the Antipsychotic drug. But can even occur years later.
- Hyperthermia ( Hypothalamus is conked off )
- Lead pipe Rigidity ( Basal ganglia are screwed)
- Altered mental state - delirious.
- Sweating/ Diaphoresis  ( compensation for high temp)
- Tachycardia
- Dyspnea
- Urinary incontinence
- Dysphagia
- Pallor.

Symptoms develop over a period of 24-72 hours.

5. Tests -
- Creatine Phosphokinase (CPK MM) is raised
- Leukocytosis
- Low Iron
- Deranged LFT and LDH

( Can be used to differentiate from serotonin syndrome)

- Diagnosis requires Hyperthermia + Rigidity +   2  other features ( including riased leukocytes and CK MM)

6. Management -
- ABCD
- Ventilatory support if needed
- stop Antipsychotic drugs.
- Anti pyrectics . Ice packs. Cooling blankets.
- BDZ
- Specific -->
Dantrolene - Muscle relaxant and Hyperthermia management. 400 mg/D.

- Bromocriptine - D2 agonist.

- ECT may be needed.

Hope this was helpful ! Happy studying and Stay awesome.

~ A.P.Burkholderia

Reversible Causes of Dementia : Mnemonic

Hi everyone ! This is a short post on causes of dementia that can be corrected. This is very important as most causes other than these have no available treatment ! (One Reversible cause of dementia is the Demeantor's kiss ;;) Treat using  Expectro Patronum)

So the medically treatable causes include the following.

Remember : ABCD2E

- Alcoholism
- Vitamin B deficiency - Thiamine / Niacin /B12
- CNS infections - HIV , Chronic Meningoencephalitis , Whipple Disease, Neurosyphilis.
- Depression
- Drug induced
- Endocrine - Thyroid disturbances

Let's look at how these can be corrected medically.
- A = Alcohol abuse. May be a result of Alcoholic delirium/ Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome. So the management would include giving Thiamine to the patient , and alcohol withdrawal using Disulfiram ans other anti craving drugs like Ondansetron, Acamprosate, Topiramate and Naltrexone.

- Vitamin B Deficiency = Thiamine deficiency we've seen above.
Niacin Deficiency causes 3 D's - Diarrhea , Dermatitis and Dementia. So treat that using Niacin.
B12 Deficiency and possibly folic acid can also cause Dementia.

- CNS Infections = They cause transient cognitive changes that are reversible on treating the disease.

- Depression = may cause depressive pseudodementia or even true dementia. (pseudo dementia = no confabulation or impaired recent memory)

- Drug induced = Chronic use of drugs like BDZ , Opiates and TCA's.

- Endocrine = Hypothyroidism is notorious to cause Dementia.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

The surgically correctable causes are below.
Remember = T2 H2

- Tumors  (esp frontal lobe tumors )
- Trauma (Subdural Hematoma)
- Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus (NPH)
- Hydrocephalus

- Tumors are resected surgically.
-  For the hydrocephalus group , ventriculo peritoneal shunting is performed.
- NPH = Triad of symptoms showing Gait disturbances , Urinary incontinence and Dementia. (GUD)

Hope this post helped you and didn't leave you too demented. !  If it did, have some chocolate like Lupin would offer ;;)
Happy studying.
Stay awesome.

~ A.P.Burkholderia

Fact of the day: Nightmares are a warning for serious mental problems

Hello

Not one or two, but frequent nightmares are major caveats for underlying serious mental problems. Rapid Eye Movement sleep disorder is a rare disorder that causes the person to act violently during dreamy state. This may be a warning sign for major neurologic disorders like Parkinson's and neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's !!

Night owls are more likely to have frequent sleep and mood disturbances than the early sleepers. Evidences suggest people suffering from nightmares and related sleep disorders are more likely to have suicidal tendencies than those not, in addition to other contributing factors.


- Jaskunwar Singh

Drugs causing hyperkalemia mnemonic

Hello!

I modified the K BANK mnemonic and added more to it to cover a few more drugs.

The mnemonic for drugs causing hyperkalemia is: K BANK Digs, cycles, sucks, self help (Sulf hep!)

K - Potassium sparing diuretics (Obviously!)

B - Non selective beta blockers

A - ACEI, ARBs

N - NSAIDs

K - Potassium supplements

Digs - Digoxin

Cycles - Cyclosporine

Sucks - Succinylcholine

Sulf - Sulfonamides, Trimethoprim

Hep - Heparin

That's all!

-IkaN

Direct acting cholinomimetic agonist mnemonic

Hi everyone, 

Here's the mnemonic for direct acting cholinomimetic drugs: ABC VPN

Nerve fibres : A clinico-physiological approach.

Hello everyone. So I've not been active at all lately , cause Final Year ! Pretty depressing 🙄. Anyway. Here's a post about the nerves and what we need to know for clinical application!

Nerves

So Erlanger and Gasser classified the nerves into A, B and C based on Myelination and size.

So you have :
A
(Which has Alpha , Beta , Gamma , Delta fibres )
B
C

Out of these , the first 3 : 
A - Alpha , Beta , Gamma = Large fibres which are largely Myelinated.

And next 3 :
A - Delta , B , C = Small fibres which are not Myelinated as much.

How I remember these fibres is as per evolutionary significance.
The least Myelinated fibres , which are the smallest are the ones all living creatures need. As we progress from C to B to A , we continue to gather more and more well developed and specialised fibres.

C -
The smallest fibres.
Least Myelinated.
Most basic fibres and most primitive from an evolutionary stand point !
Control sensations of Dull Pain and Temperature (Heat)

B -
Small fibres.
Low Myelination.
Next most Basic Instinct - Urination.
Controls your Autonomic nervous system.
Remember- B = Bladder

A Delta -
Moderately Small fibres.
Lower Myelination than other A fibres.
Responsible for sensation of Sharp pain and Temperature ( Cold )

Thus to summarize the small fibres -

We have C , B and A Delta.
Out of these
C and A Delta control Pain and Temperature
( where C controls Dull pain and Heat ; A Delta controls Sharp pain and Cold )
And B controls Bladder /ANS.

(How to remember A Delta vs C.
C is more primitive. Hence controls Dull pain. Sharp pain is a little more specialized and hence is controlled by the relatively more modern fibre - the A Delta)

Coming to the large fibres.

We progress from A gamma to A beta to A alpha.

A Gamma :
Large but smaller then Alpha and beta.
Myelinated but not as much as alpha and beta.
Responsible for muscle tone.
Remember : A Gamma = Gamma motor neuron which is responsible for tone.

A Beta :
Very large.
Well Myelinated.
Responsible for modern sensations like Fine touch, Pressure and Vibration.

A Alpha :
Largest.
Most Myelinated.
Responsible for Muscle Contraction and Most modern sense - Proprioception.
It's the Bomb of the fibres hence responsible for muscle contraction.

Thus , demyelinating diseases like Guillian Barre syndrome and CIDP would affect the fibres that are used to being Myelinated.
So your presentation in these diseases would generally involve loss of:
A Alpha - Motor + Proprioception
A Beta -  Modern sensations of fine touch and vibration.
A Gamma - Tone

And Axonal Polyneuropathic Diseases like Metabolic or Post infectious ones would involve loss and abnormalities of -
A Delta - Sharp Pain and Cold
B - ANS
C - Dull pain and Heat.

Hope this was helpful !
Happy studying !
Stay awesome.

~ A.P. Burkholderia

Case control study vs Cohort study mnemonic

Super short post :)

Case control study - Start with an outcome and go back in time to study the risk factor.
Simplified: Case (Diseased) vs Control (No disease)

Cohort study - Start with risk factor and see who developed the disease and who did not.
Mnemonic: cOhOrt has two O's.
One O has an R (cohORt), which means one group has the risk factor.
Other O does not have an R (cOhort), which means the other group does not have the risk factor.
Compare the two to see who gets the disease.

How to remember that case control studies measure odds ratio and cohort studies measure relative risk:

You take surgical "cases" to the "OR" (Operating room)
Case control study - Odds Ratio

cohoRRRRRRt measures Relative Risk.

kthxbye!

-IkaN

Abdominal Pain in Pregnancy

Hey guys

In this post I will mention the most common and must-know causes of abdominal pain in pregnancy which is a very common complaint during gestation. I will also mention certain salient points which will be helpful in the differential diagnosis.

1. Implantation Bleeding. There is a mild abdominal pain 6-12 days after conception along with a small amount of vaginal bleeding called spotting. Be careful so as not to confuse this bleeding with the menstrual bleeding.

2. Ectopic Pregnancy. This is the leading cause of first trimester mortality of the foetus. If there is a serum HCG level more than 2400 mIU/ml (The discriminatory zone is 1500-2400mIU/ml) and on USG there is no gestational sac in the uterus, then you should strongly suspect this. The most common sites are Tubal, Ovarian, Interstitial, Cervical.

3. Spontaneous Abortion. It is common in the early pregnanacy( upto 20 weeks) and is divided into 4 stages: Threatened, Inevitable, Incomplete, Complete. If there is vaginal bleeding without cervical dilatation or any change in cervical consistency, then it is Threatened abortion, if the cervix is dilated, it is Inevitable; if some products of conception are discharged per vaginally, it is incomplete abortion.

4. Abruptio Placentae. It is due to premature separation of placenta from its implantation site causing vaginal bleeding and pain due to uterine cramps caused by myometrial irritation. In some cases there is no vaginal bleeding, and we call those Concealed abruption. If the abruption is large enough to cause uteroplacental insufficiency the fetus is at risk. And the mother is at risk of haemorrhagic shock.

5. Ovarian Cyst

6. Ovarian Torsion 

7. Appendicitis

8. Uterine leiomyomas (Fibroids)

9. HELLP Syndrome. Haemolysis, Elevated liver enzymes, Low platelets syndrome is a complication of Preeclampsia characterized by nausea, vomiting and right upper quadrant pain and tenderness. If this condition has progressed, there is risk of seizures and in the worst case hepatic rupture causing hypovolemic shock and severe pain. Peripheral blood smear will show schistocytes and low platelets.

10. Cholelithiasis. This condition will have characteristic biliary colic, i.e., intermittent right upper quadrant pain associated with nausea and vomiting.

11. Cholecystitis.

12. UTI. There will be suprapubic pain with dysuria, frequency and urgency.

13. Urolithiasis.

14. Round Ligament Pain.  Enlargement of uterus during pregnancy leads to traction in the round ligament which pulls on the nearby nerve fibres causing sharp pain; such a pain can also be caused by round ligament spasm or cramps. This pain is usually present on the right side because of the dextro-deviation of the uterus and managed by acetaminophen and exercise.

That's all!

-VM