Dermatophytes

What are Dermatophytes?
They are a group of filamentous fungi that infect only the superficial keratinized tissues
They are classified into three genera: Trichophyton, Microsporum & Epidermophyton
I had a tough time learning them at first so I made a mnemonic ^_^"
I have put it up in the image itself

Trichophyton mnemonic

Microsporum mnemonic

Epidermophyton mnemonic

Did you know?
Fungal Wet Mount is used for direct detection of fungal forms in patient specimens
KOH lyses host cells and keratin and makes fungal elements more easily detected by elimination of host materials
Calcofluor white, a fluorogenic dye, binds to specific polysaccharide bonds found in the chitin-rich fungal cell walls and can be used for detection of fungi too ^_^

That's all =D

-IkaN

Difference between Blood agar and Chocolate agar

Hi everyone!

To understand what is the difference between Blood agar and Chocolate agar, we'll need to know about nutrient agar first.

Nutrient agar: It is a simple basal medium used for growth of common pathogens. It constitutes peptone water, meat extract and agar.

So now, let's see how blood agar and chocolate agar is made, and the difference between the two -

How is Blood agar made?
Nutrient agar is sterilized by autoclave, cooled to 50°C and sterile sheep blood (5-10%) is added gradually and poured into plates.

How is Chocolate agar made?
Nutrient agar is sterilized by autoclave, cooled to 75-80°C and sterile sheep blood (5-10%) is added gradually and poured into plates.

Difference between Blood Agar and Chocolate Agar

What is the similarity between Blood agar and Chocolate agar?
- Blood agar and Chocolate agar are enriched media.
- They are used for the growth of Gram positive cocci and Gram negative fastidious organisms (see below) like Neisseria and Haemophilus species.
- They can be used to indicate hemolysis.

(If you can't remember the organisms that grow on chocolate agar, here's a mnemonic:
“Nice Homes have Chocolate” - Neisseria and Haemophilus grow on Chocolate agar)

What are fastidious organisms?
Fastidious organisms require specialized environments due to their complex nutritional requirement.

How is the difference in temperature used in the manufacturing of blood agar and chocolate agar significant?

Certain organisms such as Haemophilus species require V factor for growth (complex nutritional requirement). Factor V is present in blood but it is present inside the red blood cells (RBC).

These organisms can not utilize V factor which is trapped inside the RBC's in Blood agar.
When Blood agar is heated to 80-90°C for a few minutes (boiled blood agar), the V factor is released from within the erythrocytes and made available to the organism for utilization.

Some strains of Neisseriae and Diphtheroids require V factor too. That is why, these media are superior to plain Blood agar for growing organisms requiring V factor.

What is V fatcor?
V fatcor is a coenzyme, Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD) or Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate (NADP) which acts as a hydrogen acceptor in the metabolism of cell.

Conclusion:
Chocolate agar is a type of Blood agar in which the blood cells have been lysed by heating for growing fastidious organisms.

Did you know?
Modified Thayer Martin is a type of chocolate agar which contains antibiotics (Vancomycin, Nystatin and Colistin) to suppress growth of other bacteria and promote growth of  N gonorrhoeae.

*phew* That's all for today!

The image is my first Photoshop work on the site, hope you like it =D
Just to remind you guys, Chocolate agar contains no chocolate, they simply named it after the yummy color :P

-IkaN

Questions asked by readers:
Which blood is used for the production of blood agar?
The blood of any animal can be used.
For example - Rabbit blood, sheep blood, ox blood or human blood.

Wait, you can use even human blood? (No, nothing creepy! :P)
Human blood is usually the one which is unused in blood banks for a long period of time and can no longer be used for transfusions.

Methemoglobin

What is Methemoglobin?

Methemoglobin is a form of hemoglobin in which the iron in the heme group is in the Fe3+ (ferric) state.
Normally, it is in the Fe2+ (ferrous) state. So it is an oxidized form of Hb (hemoglobin).

Mechanism of action of antibiotics (Protein synthesis inhibitors) mnemonic

A protein synthesis inhibitor is a substance that stops or slows the growth or proliferation of cells by disrupting the processes that lead directly to the generation of new proteins.

How do you remember them?

Alpha blockade

Whenever we use a non selective alpha blocker, a reflex tachycardia is prominent.

Why?
Alpha2 receptors are present prejunctionally on nerve endings which inhibit transmitter release

If you block these receptors, there is an increased release in NA from sympathetic nerves
which causes the tachycardia

What happens if you use a selective alpha1 blocker?

There is a block in sympathetically mediated vasoconstriction and produces a fall in BP which is attended by mild tachycardia; NA release is not increased due to absence of alpha2 blockade


-IkaN

Oral Rehydration Therapy

Hello everyone! :D
Indian Academy of Pediatrics is celebrating the ORS week where we create awareness about Oral Rehydration Therapy :)

Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT) is a treatment for dehydration associated with diarrhea.

ORS saves millions of children a year from death due to diarrhea.
But sadly, even today children die due to diarrhea in some developing countries.
Sometimes people don't understand that praying is not enough, treatment should also be given. They should not be negligent when it comes to health.
We have a quotation, "Dawa and Dua" are essential to save a person's life.
Dawa means medicine & Dua means Prayer.
So I give equal importance to both the factors in our lives, faith and medicine, and this was the basis of my poster for the ORS awareness week :)

Francis Bacon said, ''Hope is a good breakfast, but it is a bad supper."

ORS awareness poster

So lemme tell you about ORS ^_^
You see, normally our body pumps out fluid in the intestine during digestion
This fluid has a high concentration of sodium
Nearly all of this fluid is reabsorbed by the intestine, in an healthy individual, to maintain a balanced sodium level in the body.

During diarrhea, liquid secreted in the intestinal lumen passes the gut so quickly that very little sodium and water is absorbed. This is why, heavy continuous diarrhea can be a very dangerous and potentially life-threatening condition within hours.
This is the reason why you need sodium and water replenishment via ORT

Why is glucose needed?
The co-transport of sodium into the epithelial cells via the SGLT1 protein requires glucose or galactose. Without glucose or galactose present, intestinal sodium will not be absorbed.

Remember: Glucose is never more than 110mMol/lit to avoid the risk of osmotic diarrhea.

Why is sodium citrate or sodium lactate or NaHCO3 used?
The alkali loss due to diarrhea causes acidosis. It is corrected :)

I also wrote a poem as a part of this program, even though I'm VERY bad at rhymes :D

The ORS says :

"I'm oral rehydrating solution,
I help balance water distrubution.

Whatever the cause maybe,
Whether it's rotavirus or cholera,
and it's causing vomitting or diarrhoea,
utilize me properly in this era.

I'm a medicine that barely costs,
So when water from the body is lost,
Don't hesitate to use sugar and salt,
& put dehydration to a halt.

I've saved millions of lives,
But still some don't survive.
So please create awareness about me,
& let people use me wonderfully."

Please create awareness.. If you know a mother with a child, educate her about diarrhea. Let people know. You never know, you could save a life. :)

-IkaN

Update: I won the first prize for this poster in National ORS week conducted by Indian Pediatric Association ^__^

Stockholm syndrome

Recently, this word has been haunting me.. So.. Let's see what's it about!

Stockholm syndrome is a psychological response sometimes seen in an abducted hostage, in which the hostage shows signs of loyalty to the hostage-taker, regardless of the danger (or at least risk) in which the hostage has been placed.

Stockholm syndrome

A song by Muse from the album Absolution is of the same name
It has always got me wondering.. Is the song about memories holding you captive?
Even when those memories have the capacity of hurting you, you still don't let go and set yourself free.. You still don't forget.. Even when you want you.. But you just can't..
The verse however let's you decide what perspective you choose to have.. The abusers or the victims.. But the chorus expresses the syndrome well..

I heard it on the television series, White Collar too..
Neal Caffrey: No. There are things about this life I'm not ready to give up.
Mozzie: Do you even know what this life is anymore? I mean, you're... on a leash. You're still in prison. You have Stockholm syndrome.
Let's analyze Mozzie's view.. Giving up THE final score for what? Stockholm syndrome it is!
I feel Caffrey's pain throughout the series though.. Because the hardest part isn’t choosing, it’s learning to live with the choices you make T_T

I also know someone whose WhatsApp status is Stockholm syndrome.. Professional secrecy shall prevent me from commenting any further.. :D
[And damn, he is good at using these laws against you!]

In psychology, Stockholm syndrome is a psychological phenomenon in which hostages express empathy and have positive feelings towards their captors, sometimes to the point of defending them.
This sounds like some milder form of sadism..
You know you've got the Stockholm syndrome when you hear yourself saying, “I know what he’s done to me, but I still love him” ;)

Did you know?
The syndrome is named after the Norrmalmstorg robbery of Kreditbanken at Norrmalmstorg, Stockholm, Sweden, in which the bank robbers held bank employees hostage and the victims became emotionally attached to their victimisers, and even defended their captors after they were freed from their six-day ordeal.. This is the art of brainwashing! :O

This blog post doesn’t reflect the thoughts or opinions of either myself, my family, my friends, or my dragon :P
Blogging about psychology does get you all serious.. Lighten up and stay awesome! :)

-IkaN

Awesome Twosome Drugs

So today I was asked two fixed dose combinations of drugs which antagonize each others side effects..
Lemme tell you about the combinations I thought of! :D

First.. *drum roll*
Aluminum hydroxide & Magnesium Trisilicate!
These two are antacids ie neutralize gastric acids

Magnesium salts act fast & Aluminum salts are slow acting
Magnesium salts act as laxatives & Aluminum salts are constipating
Magnesium salts hasten gastric emptying & Aluminum salts delay it

So.. What do you get when you mix em together? Dose reduction & minimization of systemic toxicity! ^_^

They are indicated in hyperacidity gastritis, reflux  esophagitis, dyspepsia

Second combination is seen in OCPs [Oral Contraceptive Pills]
Levonorgesterol & Ethinyl estradiol

Progesterone inhibits the frequency of LH secretory pulses & estrogen inhibits FSH secretion
So estrogen and progesterone synergise to inhibit ovulation
Estrogens increase the risk of endometrial carcinoma while progestin given concurrently blocks the risk..

So use em together!

Side effects of medicines combined (:

Each coin has two sides.. The trick is to use both sides to your benefit.. Team up!

Lemme know if know of any other such combinations.. Where the evils come together for the good without creating a dilemma..
Please do comment or email me and let me know.. :)

"I make bad look so good" -Megamind ;)
Have a nice day lol

-IkaN

Neuromuscular (myoneural) junction

Neuromuscular junction labelled

 Hello, lovely folks!

Lets learn something about the neuromuscular junction!
Refer the diagram as you read.. Otherwise it might not make sense to you..

1 As the nerve suppplying skeletal muscle reaches its termination it divides into a number of terminal buttons or end feet

2 The endfeet contains many small clear vesicles that contain acetyl choline, the transmitter at these junctions!

3 The endings fit into depressions in the motor plate - the thickened portion of the membrane at the junction

4 Underneath the nerve ending, the muscle membrane of the end plate is thrown into a number of folds called the junctional folds

5 The space between the nerves and the thickened membrane is comparable to a synapse! (Remember, this is a chemical synapse and there shall be delay.. In chemical synapses there is no delay)

 6 Ach muscle type nicotinic receptors are concentrated at the tops of the junctional folds of membrane of motor end plate

7 Only one nerve fibre ends on each end plate, with no convergence of multiple units

THIS, my dear friends, is known as the neuromuscular junction or myoneural junction

That's all! ^_^
You can use this as a ready made short note :P

Oh.. One more thing, in one of my first year vivas, I was asked what are the two types of Acetylcholine receptors..
The answer is nicotinic and muscarinic receptors.. There is an interesting story about how they were named!
Muscarinic receptors were named as such because they are more sensitive to muscarine.. isolated from a mushroom! :O
Nicotinic receptors could be opened by nicotine and hence the name!
Imagine someone naming you dust because you are sensitive to it! [That was a lame attempt to crack a joke on hypersensitivity reactions.. I should stop typing now :D ]

-IkaN

PS: I apologize for the awful diagram.. It's from one of my old notes, when I had no intentions of blogging :D
If time permits I'll update the diagram.. Till that you may rely on Google :)

If you do not heal yourself, you die

In some cases of myocardial infarction, the clot spontaneously resolves itself, this is the healing process.

But at the same time the atheroma can worsen, there maybe haemorrhage & disruption exposing the thrombogenic components causing expansion of the atheroma.

So do you get what I'm talking about? In life too we can either choose to heal or worsen our condition, it's your decision really.. To feel better or worse about the smallest thing or the biggest problem you think you have..

Do you choose to heal?

-IkaN

Oxytocin

Heyy guys I know its' too late for a valentines day blog post.. But why need a day to celebrate love?
Lemme tell you about Oxytocin.. The love hormone <3

Oxytocin is secreted by the posterior pitutary.

Physiological roles:
Labour - It contracts the uterus & facilitates birth by a G protein receptor.
Milk ejection reflex - It causes contraction of the myoepithelial cells to let down milk. Remember it isn't responsible for production of milk. Only secretion or ejection more appropriately.
It is also a neurotransmitter (Love is in the air) ;)

It is a peptide that's why it is inactive orally [Destroyed by the acid in the stomach]
It is generally administered by iv or im routes

Uses:
Induction of labour: Either prematurely or in case of postmaturity.
Uterine inertia: When uterine contractions are feeble & labour is not progressing satisfactorily.
Postpartum haemorrhage: Hypertensive patients where ergometrine is contraindicated.
Breast engorgement: Due to inefficient milk ejection reflex. Nasal spray before feeding infant is given.

Do you know Oxytocin and Anti-diuretic hormone ADH  are both octapeptides & have 6 common amino acid residues but differ at position 3 and 8?
Water intoxication because of ADH like action of large doses given along with i.v. fluids can be a fatal complication in renal insufficiency and toxaemia of pregnancy.

Another cool fact: Myoepithelial cells are more sensitive to Oxytocin than the Myometrium

That's all! :)
Happy 13th April ^_^"
-IkaN
(Inspired by Andrea Martins)

Inflammatory pain & NSAIDs

Inflammation causes release of many different cytokines & growth factors.

Stimuli in the inflamed area that would normally cause only minor pain produce an exaggerated response (hyperalgesia) and normally innocuous stimuli such as touch cause pain (allodynia)

Many of the cytokines and growth factors facilitate perception and transmission in cutaneous areas as well as in the dorsal horn.

Prostaglandins induce hyperalgesia by affecting the transducing property of free nerve endings.

Prostaglandins and other inflammatory molecules facilitate activation of tetrodoxin resistant Na+ channels in the dorsal root ganglion (which give rise to unmyelinated C and Adelta fibres both conducting
nociceptive stimuli)

This is how prostaglandins produced during inflammatory states significantly increase the excitability of nociceptive nerve fibres.

So if you prevent this peripheral sensitization, hyperalgesia is reduced.
This is how NSAIDs work.

Note that NSAIDs do not affect the tenderness induced by direct application of PGs, but block the pain sensitizing mechansim induced by bradykinin, TNFalpha, interleukins (ILs) and other algesic substances.

That is why, NSAIDs are more effective against inflammation associated pain.

So now you know :)
Have a nice day

-IkaN

Viruses and Passion

Viruses are strange, they do not feed & by some definitions are not living things.
A virus simply exists to reproduce itself & only "comes alive" inside a living cell.

I feel that the living cell is our passion.. & without passion we'd simply exist.. Lifeless..
The "living cell" makes us enthusiastic.. To live life..

It maybe anything.. You maybe passionate about photography, cooking, learning new facts or as small as discovering a new piece of music =)
But that small thing.. Brings us to life.. It does make you feel alive, doesn't it?
Passion is your living cell & without it.. You feel just like a non-living thing..

Now there is a really cool thing you can learn from viruses..
Once cell lysis occurs, they free themselves of the past and they find a new cell..
They never stop living.. They keep moving on & exploring life as it comes..
I guess you have to read more about viral replication to understand what I'm talking about ^_^"

Anyway I hope you get what I meant to say..
Be passionate & keep moving forward :)
-IkaN